Yilmaz, Ozgur

Undoubtedly the most important change in Ottoman provincial administration in the 19th century was the centralizing activities taken by Mahmud II. The new government policy based on the limitation of power of ayan families who had a long history in the ottoman provinces, and on the reestablishment of central control demonstrated its impact in the Eastern Black Sea region. The region was a scene of long term struggle between governors that represents the central power and local notables in the first thirty years of the 19th century. The implementation of Tanzimat reforms in the area, as a next phase of this struggle period, created a large discontented group that their interests damaged by new Tanzimat reforms which required not only administrative but fiscal centralizing and other new applications. Although a part of this discontented group was integrated into the new system, this process was a little more painful in some part of the empire like eastern side of Trabzon Province. The period of disorders lasted between 1840-1846 in Adjara, a buffer zone on the Ottoman-Russian border, revealed an example of the own system of local notables (ayan) of Black Sea Region and showed the vulnerability and fragility of the region to the internal and external developments. In this context based on the Ottoman and French archival documents, this study aims to evaluate the emergence and causes of rebellions of Kor Huseyin Bey, who was a member of the Selim Pasazadeler, one of the most important ayan families in Adjara in 1840 and 1846 which led to a climate of anarchy and their effects on the region.

Yilmaz, Ozgur

The French Revolution and the invasion of Egypt created a crisis period in Ottoman-French relations and also arrested the French initiatives to trade in the Black Sea from the 17th century. However, on 25 July 1802 with the Treaty of Paris, the French were also given the right to trade in the Black Sea. In this way, France added the Black Sea to his privileges. With the 2nd and 3rd articles of the treaty, France has obtained the right to create consular agents on various points of the Black Sea. In this context, by a decision of 21 September 1802, a general consulate in Sinop and two consular agents in Trabzon and Eregli, depended to consulate general of Sinop, established. Pascal Fourcade was appointed as consul to Sinop and arrived to the city in the October of 1803. Fourcade was welcomed in a good way in Sinop; but the anarchy reigned in Anatolia after the Tayyar Pasha's exile, and intrigues of Russian colleague, Konuchenco, Fourcade stayed in difficult situations in the city. In fact, the preference of Sinop, as a general consulate centre was not in accordance with the terms of the period. Although Sinop had one of the best ports of the Southern Black Sea, the city was not as active as in the past on a commercial basis. It is known that Sinop was one of the places that mostly affected by Ottoman-Russian wars. Sinop had profited commercial relation that took place between the north-south ports of the Black Sea under the Ottoman dominance over the Black Sea. Especially in trade with Crimea, Sinop was the main port for Anatolian products. However, ever-expanding dominance of the Russia over the Black Sea, not only affected commercial relations between Black Sea ports but also started a decline period for southern Black Sea ports as Sinop and Trabzon that had strong commercial affairs with northern Black Sea. In this state Sinop was a small coastal town in the beginning of 19th century. But as the French consul stated, Sinop would became a strategic position as a port for trade of Anatolia and Iran in case of favourable conditions. Fourcade had very high expectations for the future of the city. The most important task of French consul was to achieve new markets for French goods; receive raw materials coming from Iran and Anatolia and establish warehouses for goods in Sinop. In this regard, Fourcade was describing the city as a trading port that had a very bright future and comparing the city to Alexandria and Baghdad, and also trying to show that Sinop was better port than Samsun and Trabzon. Fourcade's these expectations were not only connected to the creation of favourable conditions for trade and establishment of the necessary infrastructure. In fact, the realization of these plans depended on Tayyar Pasha's power, the governor of southern Black Sea region. As Fourcade's words, the main purpose of the consul was to establish good relations with Tayyar Pasa and convince him to gains of future French trade in his region. In the spring of 1804, Fourcade met with Tayyar Pasha and achieved positive results for his future plans; but because of obstructions of Russian consul in Sinop Fourcade did not realize his plans that emerged after the consul and Tayyar Pasa's interview in Bafra. Moreover defeat of Tayyar Pasha by Yusuf Pasha and exile to Sohum in 1805 created a real period of solitude for Fourcade in Sinop. Fourcade was met in early days in Sinop with Russian jealousy. When he arrived to Sinop, the city had been hosting Russian consuls since 1785. So, the biggest obstacle to plans of French consul was the Russian colleague Konuchenco. As the agent of Russia who did not want another European power in Black Sea, Konuchenco showed all his effort to fail Fourcade's mission in Sinop. In this context it is difficult to say that French Foreign Ministry predicted Russian rivalry in the Black Sea ports. Whereas with the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca, Russian had gained to right to trade in Black Sea and soon after the treaty they established a consular network in the port cities. Sinop was one the port cities that the Russian preferred to create a consular agent. Russian consuls in Sinop were so powerful that they could change kadi of Sinop. There were also very strong relations between Russian consul Konuchenco and Tayyar Pasa who had territories in Crimea consigned to Battal Huseyin Pasa, father of Tayyar Pasa, in his exile in Russia. In the first two years of consulate, Fourcade complained so often the relations between Tayyar Pasa and Konuchenco and Russian dominance over the Sublime Porte that seen in Sinop. Indeed, until the expulsion of Russian consul in February 1807, a diplomatic war had taken place in Sinop. Both consuls followed each other tightly and try to stop each other's activities. In this way, in the early years of the 19th century Sinop lived a provincial diplomacy period that created by presence of French and Russian consuls in the city. After the Tayyar Pasha's exile to Sohum, all the balance in Anatolia had changed. In the period of Tayyar Pasa's reign in the region, Fourcade had only to try to establish good relation with Tayyar Pasa for French trade; but after 1805, Fourcade rested between a multiple powers in Sinop. In this state the turmoil reigned in Anatolia after the Tayyar Pasha's exile was a real obstacle for Fourcade's plans. Furthermore the consulate was attacked by Greek sailor under the Russian protection in 1806 when Fourcade was in Kastamonu. But aggression of 1807 was more drastic for French consulate in Sinop. Fourcade and chancellor of consulate, Bernage, were injured by Laz sailors who participated the turmoil ended Selim III' reign, debarked in Sinop in way of their homeland. The expulsion of Russian consul Konuchenco from Sinop by Ottoman-Russian War broke out in 1806 was really created a liberty atmosphere in the city. But Russian-French rapprochement and the Treaty of Tilsit reversed this atmosphere against to French in Anatolia. These new conditions that clearly seen in aggression of 1807, showed also the future of the Fourcade's mission in Sinop. Although Fourcade's Sinop consulate did not obtain significant result for French trade; his six-year consulate left us very valuable documents that exist in French foreign ministry archives in Paris and Nantes. These consular reports and detailed travel voyages accounts are very valuable sources for Southern Black Sea region at beginning of the 19th century. Fourcade, like an archaeologist and geographer travelled in his consular district and prepared detailed reports on Sinop, Kastamonu, Ladik and Amasya region. A portion of them were published; but there are also some reports are not reached until now. It is the Fourcade's archaeological activities that make the Sinop consulate worthwhile in the world of science. But beyond this, archival sources on Fourcade's six-year consulate, gives us valuable information about on the situation of Anatolia in Age of Ayans at the beginning of the 19th century, Russian impact on the Black Sea and history of Ottoman-French relations in the Black sea. This study aims to make a review on Fourcade's Sinop consulate by using resources of the French archives.

Yilmaz, Ozgur

Mısır’ın işgalinin neden olduğu siyasi kriz dönemini sona erdiren 1802 Paris Antlaşması ile Karadeniz’de ticaret hakkı kazanan Fransa, 1803’te Trabzon’da bir konsolosluklar kurdu. Fakat bu süreçte Fransızların Trabzon’un ticaretiyle ilgilenmeleri transit ticaretinin canlandığı 1830’lu yıllara denk gelmektedir. Fransızlar önceleri İran ticareti için Gürcistan yolunu kullanma yönünde ciddi adımlar atsa da bu yola ilişkin planlarını gerçekleştiremeyince, İngilizlerin girişimiyle önem kazanan Trabzon-Tebriz yoluna ilgi göstermeye başladılar. Fakat Fransa Trabzon’daki ticarette, İngiltere’nin çok gerisinde küçük bir paya sahipti. Bu çalışma Fransız arşiv kaynaklarından hareketle, Fransa’nın Trabzon ticaretindeki yerini tayin etme ve Trabzon’da Fransız ilgisini yansıtan yatırım ve yatırım teşebbüslerini inceleme amacındadır.

Yilmaz, Ozgur

Osmanlı şehir tarihi yazımı sırasında başvurulabilecek kaynaklardan biri de seyahatnamelerdir. Bu eserler yazarları ister yerli ister yabancı olsun pek çok bakımdan dikkatle incelenmeye değer bilgiler ihtiva etmektedirler. Seyahatnameler her ne kadar tarihi bir kaynak olarak kabul edilme konusunda tartışma götürmeye devam etse de zamanın ve mekânın canlı bir tasviri olmaları, yazıldıkları dönemin kültürel yapısını yansıtmaları ve bize tarihe farklı bir açıdan bakma imkânı vermeleri nedeniyle her zaman dikkat çekmektedirler. Bu bağlamda Osmanlı şehir tarihlerinin bir kaynağı olarak seyahatnamelerin Osmanlı tarihçiliği açısından daha da önem kazandıkları görülmektedir. Bu yazı Türkiye’de seyahatnameler hakkında yapılan çalışmalar üzerinde genel bir değerlendirmeden sonra seyahatnamelerin şehir tarihleri açısından kaynak değerleri konusunda bazı tespitlerde bulunmayı amaçlamaktadır.

Yilmaz, Ozgur

During the writing an Ottoman city history, travelogues have an important place among other sources that could be consulted. These books, their authors whether local or foreign, contain valuable information worth checking out carefully in many ways. Though different discussion on travel books about their value of historical source exists, they reflect lively description of time and place, cultural structure of the period and make us possible to look at history from a different aspect. In this context, travelogues, as a source of Ottoman city histories, gained more importance in terms of Ottoman historiography. This paper aims to make, after a general review of the studies on travel accounts in Turkey, a few observations in terms of source value of travel books in city historiography.